10 Kerajaan Dengan Masa Pemerintahan Terlama Di Sepanjang Sejarah

Sepanjang sejarah, banyak kerajaan yang jatuh dan bangun. Namun dapat terlihat dari sejarah pula kerajaan yang paling bertahan lama. Kerajaan apa saja itu ??

10. Kerajaan Portugis:
Kerajaan Portugis terkenal karena memiliki angkatan laut terkuat sepanjang sejarah. Namun angkatan daratnya kurang dikenal sampai tahun 1999. Kerajaan ini bertahan selama 584 tahun dan merupakan kerajaan global yang menguasai 4 benua. Berdiri pada tahun 1415 saat Portugis menguasai Cueta, kota Islam di Afrika Utara. Ekspansi berlanjut ke Afrika, India, Asia, dan hingga ke Amerika. Setelah Perang Dunia II sampai 1999, Portugal menyerah kepada Cina. Kerajaan Portugis banyak dapat menguasai wilayah karena memiliki senjata yang luar biasa. Angkatan lautnya yang kuat memungkinkan mereka bertukar gula, budak, dan emas dari laut. Kerajaan Portugis runtuh karena beberapa faktor seperti tekanan internasional dan ekonomi.
9. Kerajaan Ottoman:
Kekuatan Kerajaan Ottoman mencakup 3 benua dengan budaya, agama, dan bahasa yang berbeda-beda. Kerajaan ini bertahan selama 623 tahun, dari 1299 sampai 1922. Kerajaan Ottoman dimulai dari wilayah kecil Turki setelah lemahnya Kerajaan Byzantium. Kerajaan ini menguasai Konstantinopel tahun 1453 dan memperluas wilayah hingga Eropa dan Afrika Utara. Perang Saudara pada awal 1900-an yang diikuti Perang Dunia I menandai runtuhnya kerajaan ini. Inflasi, pengangguran, dan kompetisi adalah faktor kunci runtuhnya Kerajaan Ottoman.

8. Kerajaan Khmer:
Kerajaan Khmer yang beribukota di Angkor (sekarang Angkor Wat) merupakan salah satu monumen religius terbesar di dunia. Kerajaan Khmer berdiri pada tahun 802 saat Jayavarman II mendeklarasikan dirinya sebagai raja wilayah Kamboja. Pada tahun 1432 kerajaan ini terpecah. Banyak teori yang menjelaskan penyebab runtuhnya kerajaan ini. Beberapa di antaranya ialah hilangnya tenaga kerja, degenerasi sistem manajemen air, dan yang terpenting adalah hasil panen yang lemah. Pendapat lain mengatakan Kerajaan Sukhothai menduduki Angkor pada tahun 1400-an.

7. Kerajaan Ethiopia:
Kerajaan ini berdiri pada tahun 1270 ketika Dinasti Solomonid menjatuhkan Dinasti Zagwe dan mendeklarasikan Raja Solomon sebagai raja bagi penduduk Habesha. Dari sana, dinasti tersebut menjadi kerajaan yang menguasai Ethiopia. Mendekati tahun 1895, Italia menyatakan perang terhadap Kerjaan Ethiopia. Tahun 1935, Benito Mussolini memimpin tentara Italia untuk menyerang Ethiopia selama 7 bulan dan akhirnya Italia mengumumkan kemenangannya. Tahun 1936-1941, Italia menguasai wilayah ini.


6. Kerajaan Kanem:
Kerajaan Kanem berdiri sekitar tahun 700 dan bertahan hingga 1376. Kerajaan ini terletak ini wilayah yang sekarang disebut Chad, Libya, dan sebagian Niger. Penduduk Zaghawa pertama kali menyatakan ibukota pada tahun 700 di kota N'jimi. Kerajaan ini terbagi menjadi 2 dinasti: Duguwa dan Sayfawa yang membawa agama Islam ke dalam kerajaan ini. Bulala menduduki N'jimi dan akhirnya mengambil alih Kerajaan Kanem.

5. Kerajaan Romawi Suci:
Kerajaan Romawi Suci merupakan pecahan dari Kerajaan Romawi Barat dengan titah langsung dari Gereja Katolik Romawi. Namanya diambil dari fakta bahwa kaisarnya dipilih berdasarkan pemilihan umum dan disematkan mahkota oleh paus di Roma. Kekaisaran ini bertahan dari tahun 962 sampai 1806. Kekaisaran dimulai saat Otto I mendeklarasikan diri sebagai Raja Jerman. Kekaisaran ini menguasai 300 wilayah. Pada tahun 1648, kerajaan ini mulai terpecah-pecah.


4. Kerajaan Silla:
Kerajaan Silla berdiri pada 57 SM dan meliputi Korea Utara dan Selatan. Kin Park Hyeokgeose merupakan raja pertamanya dan menguasai 4 kerajaan di sepanjang Peninsula Korea. Dinasti Tang dan Cina dan Kerjaan Silla berperang pada abad ke-7 namun Silla dapat mengalahkannya.

3. Republik Venice:
Kerajaan Venesia terkenal dengan angkatan lautnya yang telah menguasai wilayah dari Eropa hingga Mediterania dengan kota penting seperti Siprus dan Crete di dalamnya. Venesia berkuasa sepanjang 1.100 tahun, dari 697 hingga 1797. Kerajaan ini berdiri saat Kerajaan Romawi Barat jatuh ke tangan Italia. Kerajaan ini jatuh ketika kota Piedmont jatuh ke tangan Perancis di bawah kepemimpinan Napoleon Bonaparte. Saat Napoleon memberikan ultimatum, Doge Ludovico Manin menyerah pada tahun 1797 dan Venice berada di bawah kekuasaan Napoleon.

2. Kerajaan Kush:
Kerajaan Kush bertahan dari 1070 SM sampai tahun 350 yang sekarang dikenal dengan Republik Sudan. Kerajaan ini sangat bergantung pada kayu sebagai bahan ekspor utama karena sulit untuk memperdagangkan besi dan emas. Diduga kerajaan ini runtuh akibat serangan dari suku gurun, namun para ilmuwan berpendapat keruntuhan tersebut dikarenakan deforestasi yang dilakukan sehingga persediaan kayu mereka menipis. Jadi bisa dikatakan Kerajaan Kush meruntuhkan dirinya sendiri dengan menghabiskan kayu untuk industri tanpa ada penanggulangannya.

1. Kerajaan Romawi Timur:
Kerajaan Romawi tidak hanya kerjaan paling terkenal dalam sejarah namun juga kerajaan yang paling lama bertahan. Kerajaan ini bertahan di berbagai era namun tepatnya dari 27 SM sampai tahun 1453 dengan lama bertahan selama 1480 tahun. Kerajaan ini menguasai wilayah Mediterania hingga Italia. Kerajaan Romawi Barat pecah pada tahun 476 saat Jerman menyingkirkan Romulus Augustus dari kursi kekaisaran, namun Kerajaan Romawi Timur tetap bertahan

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Seven Most Hated Animals

Leech




Leeches are annelids comprising the subclass Hirudinea. There are freshwater, terrestrial, and marine leeches. Like the Oligochaeta, they share the presence of a clitellum. Like earthworms, leeches are hermaphrodites. Some, but not all, leeches are hematophagous.

The European medical leech, Hirudo medicinalis, and some congeners, as well as some other species, have been used for clinical bloodletting for thousands of years, although most leeches do not feed on human blood, but instead prey on small invertebrates, which they eat whole.

Haemophagic leeches attach to their hosts and remain there until they become full, at which point they fall off to digest. A leech's body is composed of 34 segments. They all have an anterior (oral) sucker formed from the first six segments of their body, which is used to connect to a host for feeding, and also release an anesthetic to prevent the host from feeling the leech. They use a combination of mucus and suction (caused by concentric muscles in those six segments) to stay attached and secrete an anti-clotting enzyme, hirudin, into the host's blood stream.

Some species of leech will nurture their young, while providing food, transport, and protection, which is unusual behavior amongst annelids. Why These Most Hated Animals ? : The Animal Look So Disgusting And Scary


Chinch-Bedbugs



Cimicidae or bedbugs, are small parasitic insects. The most common type is Cimex lectularius. The term usually refers to species that prefer to feed on human blood. All insects in this family live by feeding exclusively on the blood of warm-blooded animals.

A number of health effects may occur due to bed bugs including skin rashes, psychological effects and allergic symptoms. Diagnosis involves both finding bed bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms. Treatment is otherwise symptomatic.

In the developed world, bedbugs were largely eradicated as pests in the early 1940s, however have increased in prevalence since about 1995. Because infestation of human habitats has been on the increase, bedbug bites and related conditions have been on the rise as well. The exact causes of this resurgence remain unclear; it is variously ascribed to greater foreign travel, more frequent exchange of second-hand furnishings among homes, a greater focus on control of other pests resulting in neglect of bedbug countermeasures, and increasing resistance to pesticides. Bedbugs have been known human parasites for thousands of years.

The name "bedbug" is derived from the insect's preferred habitat of houses and especially beds or other areas where people sleep. Bedbugs, though not strictly nocturnal, are mainly active at night and are capable of feeding unnoticed on their hosts. They have however been known by a variety of names including wall louse, mahogany flat, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, chinche and redcoat.Why These Most Hated Animals ? : Some Has Very Rotten Smell, And Caused Disease.


Fly/Flies

True flies are insects of the order Diptera. They possess a pair of wings on the mesothorax and a pair of halteres, derived from the hind wings, on the metathorax.

The presence of a single pair of wings distinguishes true flies from other insects with "fly" in their name, such as mayflies, dragonflies, damselflies, stoneflies, whiteflies, fireflies, alderflies, dobsonflies, snakeflies, sawflies, caddisflies, butterflies or scorpionflies. Some true flies have become secondarily wingless, especially in the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, or among those that are inquilines in social insect colonies.

The common names of true flies are written as two words, e.g., crane fly, robber fly, bee fly, moth fly, fruit fly. The common names of non-dipteran insects that have "fly" in their name are written as one word, e.g., butterfly, stonefly, dragonfly, scorpionfly, sawfly, caddisfly, whitefly.

Diptera is a large order, containing an estimated 240,000 species of mosquitoes, gnats, midges and others, although under half of these (about 120,000 species) have been described. It is one of the major insect orders both in terms of ecological and human (medical and economic) importance. The Diptera, in particular the mosquitoes (Culicidae), are of great importance as disease transmitters, acting as vectors for malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, yellow fever, encephalitis and other infectious diseases. Why These Most Hated Animals ? : The animals Live in Dirty Places And Caused Disease.

Cockroaches

Cockroaches are insects of the order Blattaria. The name derives from the Latinized Greek name for the insect. There are about 4,500 species of cockroach, of which 30 species are associated with human habitations and about four species are well known as pests.

Among the best-known pest species are the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, which is about 30 millimetres (1.2 in) long, the German cockroach, Blattella germanica, about 15 millimetres (0.59 in) long, the Asian cockroach, Blattella asahinai, also about 15 millimetres (0.59 in) in length, and the Oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis, about 25 millimetres (0.98 in). Tropical cockroaches are often much bigger, and extinct cockroach relatives and 'roachoids' such as the Carboniferous Archimylacris and the Permian Apthoroblattina were not as large as the biggest modern species. They usually live alone only coming together to mate.

Why These Most Hated Animals ? : From dirty places up to in his wardrobe often found cockroaches. Most people have a phobia of animals on this one. Many people are amused to see a cockroach, so most people do not expect to see cockroaches. And you know that cockroaches can survive for 9 days, although his head had been cut.



Head lice

Head Lice (Pediculosis capitis)  is a human medical condition caused by the colonization of the hair and skin by the parasitic insect Pediculus humanus capitis—the head louse. Typically, only the head or scalp of the host is infested, although the disease can occur in other hairy parts of the body, like leg hairs. Head lice feed on human blood (hematophagy), and itching from lice bites is a common symptom of this condition.Treatment typically includes application of topical insecticides such as a pyrethrin or permethrin, although a variety of folk remedies are also common.

Lice infestation in general is known as pediculosis, and occurs in many mammalian and bird species.The term pediculosis capitis, or simply "pediculosis", is sometimes used to refer to the specific human pediculosis due to P. humanus capitis . Humans are hosts for two other lice as well—the body lice and the crab lice.

Head-lice infestation is widely endemic, especially in children. It is a cause of some concern in public health, although, unlike human body lice, head lice are not carriers of other infectious diseases. Why These Most Hated Animals ? Because These Animals Make People Angry.


Mosquitoes

Mosquito is a common insect in the family Culicidae (from the Latin culex meaning midge or gnat). Mosquitoes resemble crane flies (family Tipulidae) and chironomid flies (family Chironomidae), with which they are sometimes confused by the casual observer.

Mosquitoes go through four stages in their life-cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult or imago. Adult females lay their eggs in standing water, which can be a salt-marsh, a lake, a puddle, a natural reservoir on a plant, or an artificial water container such as a plastic bucket. The first three stages are aquatic and last 5–14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature; eggs hatch to become larvae, then pupae. The adult mosquito emerges from the pupa as it floats at the water surface. Adults live for 4–8 weeks.

Mosquitoes have mouthparts that are adapted for piercing the skin of plants and animals. While males typically feed on nectar and plant juices, the female needs to obtain nutrients from a "blood meal" before she can produce eggs.

There are about 3,500 species of mosquitoes found throughout the world. In some species of mosquito, the females feed on humans, and are therefore vectors for a number of infectious diseases affecting millions of people per year.Some scientists believe that eradicating mosquitos would not have serious consequences for any ecosystems.Why These Most Hated Animals ? Can Caused Disease And Disturbing Us.


Rats

Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. "True rats" are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus. Many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats.

Rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size; rats are generally large muroid rodents, while mice are generally small muroid rodents. The muroid family is very large and complex, and the common terms rat and mouse are not taxonomically specific. Generally, when someone discovers a large muroid, its common name includes the term rat, while if it is small, the name includes the term mouse. Scientifically, the terms are not confined to members of the Rattus and Mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse.

Rats As Food

Rat meat is a food that while taboo or even forbidden in some cultures, is a dietary staple in others. Taboos include fears of disease or religious prohibition, but in many places rats are so plentiful compared to other sources of protein that it's logical why people would incorporate them into their diet.

In some cultures, rats are or have been limited as an acceptable form of food to a particular social or economic class. In the Mishmi culture of India, rats are essential to the traditional diet, as Mishmi women may eat no meat except fish, pork, wild birds and rats.Conversely, the Musahar community in north India has commercialised rat farming as an exotic delicacy.In the traditional cultures of the Hawaiians and the Polynesians, rat was an everyday food for commoners. When feasting, the Polynesian people of Rapa Nui could eat rat meat, but the king was not allowed to, due to the islanders' belief in his "state of sacredness" called tapu.In studying pre-contact archaeological sites in Hawaii, archaeologists have found that the concentration of the remains of rats associated with commoner households counted for three times the animal remains associated with elite households. The rat bones found in all sites are fragmented, burned and covered in carbonized material, indicating that rats were eaten as food. The greater occurrence of rat remains associated with commoner households may indicate that the elites of pre-contact Hawaii did not consume them as a matter of status or taste.

Bandicoot rats are an important food source among some peoples in Southeast Asia, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that rat meat makes up half the locally produced meat consumed in Ghana, where cane rats are farmed and hunted for their meat. African slaves in the American South were known to hunt wood rats (among other animals) to supplement their food rations,and Aborigines along the coast in Southern Queensland, Australia regularly included rats in their diet.

Ricefield rats (Rattus argentiventer) have traditionally been used as food in rice-producing regions like Valencia, as immortalized by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez in his novel Cañas y barro. Along with eel and local beans known as "garrafons", rata de marjal is one of the main ingredients in traditional paella (later replaced by rabbit, chicken and seafood).Ricefield rats are also consumed in the Philippines, the Isaan region of Thailand, as well as Cambodia. In late 2008, Reuters reported that the price of rat meat had quadrupled in Cambodia creating a hardship for the poor who could no longer afford it. Cambodia exports about a metric ton of rats daily to Vietnam as food.

Elsewhere in the world, rat meat is considered diseased and unclean, socially unacceptable, or there are strong religious proscriptions against it. The British SAS's rule book lists rat as the only meat which its members in action are not allowed to eat in order to prevent them from contracting Weil's disease. Islam and Kashrut traditions prohibit it, while both the Shipibo people of Peru and Sirionó people of Bolivia have cultural taboos against the eating of rats.

Rats are a common food item for snakes, both in the wild, and as pets. Captive-bred ball pythons in particular, are fed a diet of mostly rats. Rats, as food items, are available from many suppliers who supply to individual snake owners as well as to large reptile zoos. In Britain the government in 2007 ruled out the feeding of any live mammal to another animal. The rule says the animal must be dead (frozen) then given to the animal to eat. The rule was put in to place mainly because of the pressure of the RSPCA and people who found it cruel.

Rats In medicine

Rats can serve as zoonotic vectors for certain pathogens and thus cause disease, such as Lassa fever and Hantavirus. Rattus rattus, and the rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis, are notorious for their role in epidemics of bubonic plague.

In odor detection

Rats have a very good sense of smell and are easy to train, this has led to their use in Landmine and Tuberculosis detection

Rat in terminology

Rats are frequently blamed for damaging food supplies and other goods, or spreading disease. Their reputation has carried into common parlance: in the English language, rat is often an insult. Rat is generally used to signify an unscrupulous character. Writer/Director Preston Sturges created the humorous alias "Ratskywatsky" for a soldier who seduced, impregnated, and abandoned the heroine of his 1944 film, The Miracle of Morgan's Creek. It is a term (noun and verb) in criminal slang for an informant - "to rat on someone" is to betray them by informing the authorities of a crime or misdeed they committed. Describing a person as "rat-like" usually implies he or she is unattractive and suspicious.

Among unions, "rat" is a term for non-union employers or breakers of union contracts, and this is why unions use inflatable rats. Why These Most Hated Animals ? Look So Scary, And frequently blamed for damaging food supplies and other goods, or spreading disease.
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The Most Scary Disease Cause By Worm - Filariasis 'Elephantiasis'

Here Are Photos Collection The Most Scary Disease Cause by worm - Filariasis 'Elephantiasis'. Beware and always maintain the cleanliness of your body and environmental hygiene.




















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Elephantiasis is a disease that is characterized by the thickening of the skin and underlying tissues, especially in the legs and male genitals. In some cases the disease can cause certain body parts, such as the scrotum, to swell to the size of a softball or basketball. "Elephantitis" is a common mis-hearing of the term, from confusing the ending -iasis (process or resulting condition) with the more commonly heard -itis (irritation or inflammation), resulting in "Elephantitis" meaning "inflammation of the elephant". The proper medical term for the disease is elephantiasis, and it is caused by filariasis or podoconiosis.

Causes

Elephantiasis occurs in the presence of microscopic, thread-like parasitic worms such as Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and B. timori, all of which are transmitted by mosquitoes. However, the disease itself is a result of a complex interplay between several factors: the worm, the symbiotic Wolbachia bacteria within the worm, the host’s immune response, and the numerous opportunistic infections and disorders that arise. Consequently, it is common in tropical regions and Africa. The adult worms only live in the human lymphatic system. Obstruction of the lymphatic vessels leads to swelling in the lower torso, typically in the legs and genitals. It is not definitively known if this swelling is caused by the parasite itself, or by the immune system's response to the parasite.

Alternatively, elephantiasis may occur in the absence of parasitic infection. This nonparasitic form of elephantiasis is known as "nonfilarial elephantiasis" or "podoconiosis", and areas of high prevalence have been documented in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Egypt and Ethiopia. The worst affected area is Ethiopia, where up to 6% of the population is affected in endemic areas. Nonfilarial elephantiasis is thought to be caused by persistent contact with irritant soils: in particular, red clays rich in alkali metals such as sodium and potassium and associated with volcanic activity.

Treatment

Treatments for lymphatic filariasis differ depending on the geographic location of the endemic area. In sub-Saharan Africa, albendazole is being used with ivermectin to treat the disease, whereas elsewhere in the world, albendazole is used with diethylcarbamazine. Geo-targeting treatments is part of a larger strategy to eventually eliminate lymphatic filariasis by 2020.

Another form of effective treatment involves rigorous cleaning of the affected areas of the body. Several studies have shown that these daily cleaning routines can be an effective way to limit the symptoms of lymphatic filariasis. The efficacy of these treatments suggests that many of the symptoms of elephantiasis are not directly a result of the lymphatic filariasis but rather the effect of secondary skin infections.

In addition, surgical treatment may be helpful for issues related to scrotal elephantiasis and hydrocele. However, surgery is generally ineffective at correcting elephantiasis of the limbs.

A vaccine is not yet available but is likely to be developed in the near future.

Treatment for podoconiosis consists of consistent shoe-wearing (to avoid contact with the irritant soil) and hygiene - daily soaking in water with an antiseptic (such as bleach) added, washing the feet and legs with soap and water, application of ointment, and in some cases, wearing elastic bandages. Antibiotics are used in cases of infection.







Filariasis (Philariasis) is a parasitic disease and is considered an infectious tropical disease, that is caused by thread-like filarial nematodes (roundworms) in the superfamily Filarioidea, also known as "filariae".
Contents

In humans

There are 8 known filarial nematodes which use humans as the host. These are divided into 3 groups according to the niche within the body that they occupy: 'lymphatic filariasis', 'subcutaneous filariasis', and 'serous cavity filariasis'. Lymphatic filariasis is caused by the worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori. These worms occupy the lymphatic system, including the lymph nodes, and in chronic cases these worms lead to the disease elephantiasis. Subcutaneous filariasis is caused by loa loa (the African eye worm), Mansonella streptocerca, Onchocerca volvulus, and Dracunculus medinensis (the guinea worm). These worms occupy the subcutaneous layer of the skin, in the fat layer. Serous cavity filariasis is caused by the worms Mansonella perstans and Mansonella ozzardi, which occupy the serous cavity of the abdomen. In all cases, the transmitting vectors are either blood sucking insects (flies or mosquitoes), or copepod crustaceans in the case of Dracunculus medinensis.

Individuals infected by filarial worms may be described as either "microfilaraemic" or "amicrofilaraemic," depending on whether or not microfilaria can be found in their peripheral blood. Filariasis is diagnosed in microfilaraemic cases primarily through direct observation of microfilaria in the peripheral blood. Occult filariasis is diagnosed in amicrofilaraemic cases based on clinical observations and, in some cases, by finding a circulating antigen in the blood.

Worm lifecycle

Human filarial nematode worms have a complicated life cycle, which primarily consists of five stages. After the male and female worms mate, the female gives birth to live microfilariae by the thousands. The microfilariae are taken up by the vector insect (intermediate host) during a blood meal. In the intermediate host, the microfilariae molt and develop into 3rd stage (infective) larvae. Upon taking another blood meal, the vector insect injects the infectious larvae into the dermis layer of the skin. After about one year, the larvae molt through 2 more stages, maturing into the adult worms.


Signs and symptoms

The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic filariasis is elephantiasis—edema with thickening of the skin and underlying tissues—which was the first disease discovered to be transmitted by mosquito bites.Elephantiasis results when the parasites lodge in the lymphatic system.

Elephantiasis affects mainly the lower extremities, while the ears, mucus membranes, and amputation stumps are affected less frequently. However, different species of filarial worms tend to affect different parts of the body: Wuchereria bancrofti can affect the legs, arms, vulva, breasts, and scrotum (causing hydrocele formation); while Brugia timori rarely affects the genitals. Interestingly, those who develop the chronic stages of elephantiasis are usually amicrofilaraemic, and often have adverse immunological reactions to the microfilaria, as well as the adult worm.




Wuchereria bancrofti




Brugia Malayi




Brugia Timori

The subcutaneous worms present with skin rashes, urticarial papules, and arthritis, as well as hyper- and hypopigmentation macules. Onchocerca volvulus manifests itself in the eyes, causing "river blindness" (onchocerciasis), the second leading cause of blindness in the . Serous cavity filariasis presents with symptoms similar to subcutaneous filariasis, in addition to abdominal pain, because these worms are also deep tissue dwellers.




Elephantiasis



Loa-loa



Dracunculiasis



Dracunculiasis

Diagnosis

Filariasis is usually diagnosed by identifying microfilariae on Giemsa stained thin and thick blood film smears, using the gold standard known as the finger prick test. The finger prick test draws blood from the capillaries of the finger tip; larger veins can be used for blood extraction, but strict windows of the time of day must be observed. Blood must be drawn at appropriate times, which reflect the feeding activities of the vector insects. Examples are W. bancrofti, whose vector is a mosquito; night time is the preferred time for blood collection. Loa loa's vector is the deer fly; daytime collection is preferred. This method of diagnosis is only relevant to microfilariae that use the blood as transport from the lungs to the skin. Some filarial worms, such as M. streptocerca and O. volvulus produce microfilarae that do not use the blood; they reside in the skin only. For these worms, diagnosis relies upon skin snips, and can be carried out at any time.

Various concentration methods are applied:

* i. Membrane filter
* ii. Knott's concentration method
* iii. Sedimentation technique

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and antigenic assays, which detect circulating filarial antigens, are also available for making the diagnosis. The latter are particularly useful in amicrofilaraemic cases. Spot tests for antigen are far more sensitive, and allow the test to be done any time, rather in the late hours.

Lymph node aspirate and chylus fluid may also yield microfilariae. Medical imaging, like CT or MRI, may reveal "filarial dance sign" in chylus fluid; X-ray tests can show calcified adult worms in lymphatics. The DEC provocation test is performed to obtain satisfying number of parasite in day-time samples. Xenodiagnosis is now obsolete, and eEosinophilia is a nonspecific primary sign.

Prevention

In 1993, the International Task Force for Disease Eradication declared lymphatic filariaisis to be one of six potentially eradicable diseases. Studies have demonstrated that transmission of the infection can be broken when a single dose of combined oral medicines is consistently maintained annually for approximately seven years. With consistent treatment, and since the disease needs a human host, the reduction of microfilariae means the disease will not be transmitted, the adult worms will die out, and the cycle will be broken.

The strategy for eliminating transmission of lymphatic filariasis is mass distribution of medicines that kill the microfilariae and stop transmission of the parasite by mosquitoes in endemic communities.

In sub-Saharan Africa, albendazole (donated by GlaxoSmithKline) is being used with ivermectin (donated by Merck & Co.) to treat the disease, whereas elsewhere in the world albendazole is used with diethylcarbamazine. Using a combination of treatments better reduces the number of microfilariae in blood. Avoiding mosquito bites, such as by using insecticide-treated mosquito bed nets, also reduces the transmission of lymphatic filariasis.

The efforts of the Global Programme to Eliminate LF are estimated to have prevented 6.6 million new filariasis cases from developing in children between 2000 and 2007, and to have stopped the progression of the disease in another 9.5 million people who had already contracted it.

Dr. Mwele Malecela, who chairs the programme, said: "We are on track to accomplish our goal of elimination by 2020." In 2010 the WHO published a detailled progress report on the elimination campaign in which they assert that of the 81 countries with endemic LF, 53 have implemented mass drug administration, and 37 have completed five or more rounds in some areas, though urban areas remain problematic.

Treatment

Management of lymphatic filariasis:Detection of microfilaremia in endemic areas and treatmant with diethylecarbamacine 100mgms thrice a day for 3 weeks & for 5 days every six months. During early stages the occurrence of repeated attacks of fever is common. During acute attack antibiotics & Nsaids will be helpful.

To prevent recurrent attacks of fever Benzathine penicillin 12 lakhs in adults & 6 lakhs in younger ones. When the swelling of the legs or arms are soft and pitting in early stages tie the affected part with elastic crepe bandage tightly from foot to the entire leg during day time & not necessary during nights or fitting elastic socks can be worn. Swelling around the ankle may not reduce with single elastic crepe or socks. Use 2nd bandage from foot to ankle. The 2 bandage technique.

If the swelling is non pitting in stage 3 or 4 still the bandage or socks with benzathine penicillin is useful. The legs should be washed with soap & water every day. If verrucas nodules appear, salicylic acid preparation like Whitfield ointment can be used. Three weekly benzathine penicillin prevents recurrent attacks of fever & swelling of legs.

In short Washing of the legs, elastic socks or elastic crepe with second bandage around the ankle & whitfield for nodules & above all Benzathine penicilline every three weeks or at shorter intervals, is the management of Lymphatic filariasis.

The recommended treatment for killing adult filarial worms in patients outside the United States is albendazole (a broad spectrum anthelmintic) combined with ivermectin. A combination of diethylcarbamazine (DEC) and albendazole is also effective. All of these treatments are microfilaricides, they have no effect on the adult worms.

In 2003 the common antibiotic doxycycline was suggested for treating elephantiasis.Filarial parasites have symbiotic bacteria in the genus Wolbachia, which live inside the worm and which seem to play a major role in both its reproduction and the development of the disease. Clinical trials in June 2005 by the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine reported that an 8 week course almost completely eliminated microfilaraemia.

Epidemiology

Filariasis is "considered" endemic in tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Central, South America and Pacific Island nations, with more than 120 million people infected and one billion people at risk for infection.

In communities where lymphatic filariasis is endemic, as many as 10 percent of women can be afflicted with swollen limbs, and 50 percent of men can suffer from mutilating genital symptoms.

History

Lymphatic filariasis is thought to have affected humans since approximately 4000 years ago.Artifacts from ancient Egypt (2000 BC) and the Nok civilization in West Africa (500 BC) show possible elephantiasis symptoms. The first clear reference to the disease occurs in ancient Greek literature, where scholars differentiated the often similar symptoms of lymphatic filariasis from those of leprosy.

The first documentation of symptoms occurred in the 16th century, when Jan Huyghen van Linschoten wrote about the disease during the exploration of Goa. Similar symptoms were reported by subsequent explorers in areas of Asia and Africa, though an understanding of the disease did not begin to develop until centuries later.

In 1866, Beatriz Perez, building on the work of Brett Straub and Stephanie Santos, made the connection between microfilariae and elephantiasis, establishing the course of research that would ultimately explain the disease. In 1876, Joseph Bancroft discovered the adult form of the worm. In 1877, the life cycle involving an arthropod vector was theorized by Patrick Manson, who proceeded to demonstrate the presence of the worms in mosquitoes. Manson incorrectly hypothesized that the disease was transmitted through skin contact with water in which the mosquitoes had laid eggs. In 1900, George Carmichael Low determined the actual transmission method by discovering the presence of the worm in the proboscis of the mosquito vector.

In domestic animals

Filariasis can also affect domestic animals, such as cattle, sheep, and dogs.

Hopefully this article useful to us, especially me. And we are must vigilant to avoid this scary disease. by always maintaining the environmental health. Because the disease is transmitted through a vector, Because the immediate environment that is not clean.
For More Detail About Filariasis and elephantiasis education Search in wikipedia click this link of Refferences: Wikipedia.org/Filariasis..Wikipedia.org/Elephantiasis

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